Biomarkers for the diagnosis and management of heart failure: New frontiers

Heart failure (HF) has a complex pathophysiology including neurohormonal activation, inflammation and oxidative stress that, together with comorbidities, promote progressive myocardial damage and cardiac remodeling. Over the years the study of these pathogenic mechanisms has led to the identification of several analytes potentially useful as biomarkers in HF. High-sensitivity troponins and soluble suppression of tumorigenesis-2 are the most promising biomarkers for risk stratification of HF, with independent value to natriuretic peptides. Other biomarkers currently being evaluated as predictors of adverse outcome in HF are galectin-3, growth differentiation factor 15, mid-regional pro-adrenomedullin as well as makers of renal dysfunction. The use of multi-marker scores as well as the application of genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics could further refine the management of HF.